the main Geometry Operation Vortex Hungary 1956. Soviet tanks in Budapest

Operation Vortex Hungary 1956. Soviet tanks in Budapest

I - deceived in bright hope
I - deprived of fate and soul -
Only once I rebelled in Budapest
Against arrogance, oppression and lies

And how smelled burning corpses on the poles, do you know? Have you ever seen a naked woman with a suspicious stomach lying in street dust? Have you seen the cities in which people are silent and scream only crows?

"It's hard to be God" Strugatsky

Anarchists and fascists took the city,
Anarchists and fascists go along the streets together
Young and beautiful

Eduard Limonov

I am quite unpleasant to analyze the motives of people who even friendly historians called them called the "primitive, primitive and cruel crowd."

After reading the memories of eyewitnesses of the Hungarian events of 1956 with a grin, perceive benevolent apocryphas, in which actions soviet soldiers According to the suppression of the rebellion, "ignorance of recruits from Central Asia, which they was told that they were sent to fight with NATO soldiers in Berlin." Everything was much easier. What analogies arose in the heads from the Soviet tank workers and the infantrymen, when they saw the crucible corpses hanging on the pillars, burned the bodies of their comrades who were captured, broken up the communist symbolism and piles of burned books? Who could do this? Only the fascists are the only suggestive answer.

But why did this happen? Why in 11 years after the collapse of Nazism in Hungary in the country almost won the mass fascist movement? Perhaps the answer to these questions will help us to understand not only in the origins of the tragedy of 1956, but also for the causes of collapse and collapse of "real socialism" in the next decades.

Soviet propaganda explained the Hungarian catastrophe intrigues of imperialism, which, as is known, does not sleep. But Hungary of 1956 was not Honduras 1954 or Cuba 1961. For the American authorities, the events in this country were a complete surprise. By October 24, 1956, in the American Embassy in Budapest was only one employee who spoke Hungarian. Only in early November, American instructors and military units of Hungarian emigrants began to arrive in the country, but they did not provide real influence on the development of events. This cannot be said about the propaganda effect of the transmission of the "Free Europe" radio station, which has become a rebellion of an analogue of a perestroika "light" and "echo of Moscow" in one bottle. American propagandists from Munich called Hungarians to fight with Soviet troops to the last and promised the Western's help for a long time after Budapest and Cardinal Mindsdi flew in the American Embassy. But the incitement programs of Americans have gained importance, only after October 24, 1956.
The reasons for the crisis must be sought in Hungary.

Although the current Hungarian propaganda represents Hungary in the 1920s and 1930s as "Lost Paradise", it should be understood that it is about the beggar, an agricultural country. The destructive Second World War destroyed 40% of the national industry, which also did not contribute to the progress and well-being of the population. Moreover, Hungary as a losing party's party was forced to pay reparations to the winners. The situation was even more aggravated after the start of the "Cold War", in which the VDD became one of the "front-line powers". The constant threat of invasion from the West forced the Rakoshi regime to create a militarized economy, in which each forint went to military expenses to the detriment of life.

The position of the working class was very heavy. For 1954, 15% had no blankets. In 20% there were no winter clothes. The worker at that time received about 1,200 forints per month, which was not enough for life. Only 15% of families could contain itself at the level of the subsistence minimum.

Until a certain moment, the authorities could refer to the "Heavy Heritage of the Old Regime", but the post-war Economic Boom made this argument every year more and more vulnerable. What is even worse, in 1953 there was a drop in wages in industry, and their level returned to the figures of 1949. The generous promises of the Communists discussed after the war turned out to be unfulfilled and the masses gradually covered the sense of hopelessness and despair.
Already in 1953, at the Chapelsk Combine in Budapest, the flagship of the Hungarian industry, almost 20 thousand workers opposed the low wages, lack of food and heavy production norms occurred. Workers of unrest were in other cities of the country.

Economic difficulties aggravated by a tense situation in the national question. Like the USSR, Hungary after 1945 faced with a sharp problem of lack of personnel. For this there were two reasons: first, rapid growth in economics and education. Secondly, the emigration of old elites. As in the Soviet Union, this issue was resolved by using frames from the number of more educated national minorities, first of all the Jews. This led to a surge of anti-Semitism. Like the prewar Soviet Union, for the backward masses and the old Hungarian intelligentsia, the word Jew-Communist-boss was synonymous.

The American sociologist Jay Schulman who was engaged in surveys of Hungarians who left the ocean after 1956 came to the conclusion that "in the eyes of 100% of the respondents, all the communist leaders were Jews." "All important posts are engaged in Jews" - said the young and pious Hungarian Erik, which Schulman interviewed. Another emigrant, a profession engineer, said that "all the leaders of cooperatives are Cohen and Schwartz." "In their eyes was the pogrom," the American scientist summed up.
For the "struggle" with anti-Semitism, Rakoshi regime did not invent anything better than arranging "anti-systemic" processes and give secret instructions to limit the number of Jews in a number of areas. However, Yudophobov is nothing at all convinced, because Matyash Rakoshi himself was still Rosenfeld.

The remnant and tactless propaganda of the "Soviet lifestyle" and the USSR also poured the oil into the fire. Too many streets were named after Pushkin and Lermontov, too unceremoniously Soviet advisors intervened in the questions of the political and economic life of Hungary, too much empty words were said about Soviet-Hungarian friendship. Not even for nationalist Hungarians, copying the Soviet system of assessments in schools and Soviet uniforms in the army was offensive, and what to talk about nationalists for which Russians were "worse than animals"?

The combination of economic discontent and sense of national imbalance gave rise to an explosive mixture. In Hungary, as in a number of other Eastern European countries, there was a tradition of mass fascists of movements of nominating radical social slogans. They had massive support not only among the middle class and the Lumen of the proletariat, but also among industrial workers. In 1937, the Nazi batch of "crossed arrows" was created in 1937 received 41% of votes in the working outlooks of Budapest. After the collapse of Hortie's regime, and then Salashism, the leadership of the "embraced arrows" was sent to the gallows or fled, but many thousands of workers who voted for fascists were not used anywhere and took an active part in the events of 1956, in many respects, determining the nature of the movement - brutal cruelty in Combination with a mixture of nationalist and social slogans.

Directly impetus to the beginning of the crisis of 1956, which agreed into the uprising, began to attempts to the ruling bureaucracy to reform the system. Tov. Ivan Loch did an interesting note on this issue that bureaucratic reform in Eastern Europe, and later and in the USSR almost always led to counterrevolution. On the one hand, the reform led to the conflict and split the stratum in the authority, which is always happy to take advantage of the opponents of the regime in any country and in any era. The second reason was that these reforms were usually the reaction of the bureaucracy on the "proletarian Bonapartism" regime, which not only limited the political and economic ambitions of the highest party bons, but also constantly put on the question of their status and even their lives. By detonation, the barytia ensured guarantees of their lifelong power, but the most consistent officials like Beria, Nadya, Gorbachev, Yakovlev received the opportunity to think about the implementation of the next step: the privatization of the property of the workers' state and the transfer of this property and inheritance authorities.

In the period from 1953 to 1956, the struggle between supporters of proletarian Bonapartism (Rakoshi, heer), moderate reformers (cadar) and a bureaucracy wing ready to make more radical reforms on the way of restoration of capitalism completely destabilized the political system of the Hungarian People's Republic.
On October 24, 1956, the regime collapsed as a card house. "Sleepy columns of the working people" gathered for a pro-government rally turned into wild hordes of the linters. An attempt to build socialism ended with medieval barbaria.

French journalist Jean-Paul Boncur, Evidence of events, exclaimed in horror:
"It's not a bourgeois revolution! Look at this tremendous crowd; These are garbage! "
Boncur was right. What happened was not a bourgeois revolution, but a spontaneous fascist uprising. David Irving's beloved in Russia, whose Nazi views, I hope not to anyone do not represent the secret wrote in your book dedicated to Hungary in 1956: "The uprising began as an old-fashioned Jewish pogrom suddenly rearranged into a full-scale revolution." In this phrase there is a considerable proportion of true. In many areas of Hungary, the 1956 Revolution began with the beating of the Jewish population.

On October 25, 1956, patients of the Jewish home of the elderly were cut out in Tápiószentgyörgy. Three Jews were killed by Miskolc (Miskolc). Just three Jews were slaughtered in Tarkal Tarcal. October 25 in Mezökövesd and in Mezönyárad many Jews were beaten, in Hajdunánás the events took the form of Jewish pogrom when the crowd was tortured and robbed the Jews. According to the testimony of Jewish refugees in Canada, the Jews flew away from the roofs of the roofs of houses. In Debrecen, Debrecen, the massacre of the Jewish population was pre-harvested (!) Lists. In the village of Tárpa, the demonstrators demanded to hang three Jews living in their community, but as a result, they were limited to "only" their beating. In the city of Mátészalka, the anti-Semitic demonstrations of the rebels were accompanied by the accusation of the Jews in the fact that they drink the blood of Christian babies. Jews were forced to escape from the linters flight. After suppressing the revolution or rebellion, the press service of the Cadar ruler declared pogroms in Vámospercs-Nyíradony villages, Hajdunánás, Balkány, Marikocs and Nyirbátor. Even in those places where the attacks on the Jews were not, all the time they lived in fear and every minute waiting for the beginning of the massacre.

(It is curious that even in the West, anti-Soviet-minded Jews did not find peace from their former fellow citizens. Riots and attacks on the eminated Jews from Hungary from other Hungarian refugees in Austria forced the authorities of this country as soon as possible to get rid of the Jews with the ocean).

The first days of the riots were held in the atmosphere of bloody chaos and anarchy. In a matter of hours, Hungary passed all those processes along the way of restoration of the old regime, to overcoming which Russia left for six years (from 1987 to 1993). Not everyone was able to immediately adapt to the setting. Some talked about socialism and sang the health care disaster, others on the next street of Zhgley Lenin and Marx books. Workers Chapel October 23, 1956 embroiled in the neck of students who came to agitate them. A few days later the same workers with the name of the Virgin Mary on the lips, went to die under Soviet tanks.
In the Hungarian events, there was another factor, which today is misleading. This is a factor of possible restitutions. Unlike the Eastern European 1980s, the 1956 Hungarians have not yet forgotten all the delights of capitalism in the city, and feudalism on the village. The peasants were so afraid of the return of the landowners, that despite all the costs of Hungarian collectivization, preferred to sabotage the "People's Revolution" quietly, observing neutrality. Hungarian workers in 1956, unlike their children did not believe in the "good owner" and preferred working self-government.

Meanwhile, the country was moving rapidly to the right. Nationalist and fascist techniques slogans completely dominated the social programs and determined the nature of the uprising. On October 25, students covered the walls of Budapest graphat type: "Freedom of Mindscents!", "No communism!" And what is the most interesting thing: "No to the working tips - the Communists launched their paws in this pate." This is true - the first working tips were created with the support of the Nadya government. The first secretary of the Budapest City Council Imer Mezé (killed in the back on October 30) personally ordered to arm workers hoping to rely on them in the fight against counter-revolution.

As the rapid radicalization of the rebels, social sympathies passed from the unlucky "uncle Imre" to the sufferer Cardinal Mindstez, anti-Semitis and a monarchist who suffered under house arrest. On October 30, the American Embassy in Budapest reported a list of the requirements of demonstrators from the Parliament Building:
1. Appoint Mindsceni Prime Minister
2. Appoint Colonel Malter Minister of Defense.
3. To withdraw Soviet troops from the country until November 15
4. If these requirements are not fulfilled - to require the Western powers to start interventions.
As you know, Mindscencies soon got freedom. Under the sound of church bells, he drove in Budapest on the tank, surrounded by crowds of fans. He arranged his residence in the territory of the Royal Palace in Buda, in a symbolic place, from where in 1944, German parachutists under the command of Otto, Sorrow pulled out Regent Hortie.
Imre Naga became an absolutely superfluous figure like Gorbachev after the form. After under the pressure of the crowd, he decided to exit Hungary from the organization of the Warsaw Agreement. His government left the last little major principal communists, including the philosopher of Derdy Lukach.

In early November, the first groups of American military specialists began to arrive through the open borders in Hungary. They trained Hungarian adolescents to make anti-tank dilutions and manufacture bottles of an incendiary mixture.
A rolling ultra-right wave was obvious to all who was at least a little aware of the real state of affairs in Budapest. The leader of the Hungarian Social Democrats, who came to the Socintern meeting in Vienna (Anna Kelty (by the way, a convinced anti-community) spoke about the "victory of counter revolution". Her words sounded as a voice of screaming in the desert among the delights of Social Democrats, singing the "workers' uprising". Before leaving from Vienna, the leader of the Socialistchician International Herbert Venger called her:
"- What will I do?
"It intends to leave the Warsaw Pact! You can not fold twice two! What do you want Mindscents and a fascist coup in Hungary? "

Fanaticism and cruelty of the rebels played a bad joke with them. If they had adhered to a more moderate line, the USSR intervention in Hungarian events would probably be avoided. On October 29, 1956, at a reception in the Turkish Embassy in Moscow, the USSR Foreign Minister D. Shepilov and Marshal G. Zhukov openly spoke about their sympathy of the Hungarian workers who opposed the bureaucracy. However, the shocking information about the pogroms and the massacre in Hungary ultimately overflowed the bowl of the patience of Khrushchev. On November 4, Soviet troops crossed the Hungarian border. The resistance of the rebels was crushed in a few days.

In the left-communist, trotsky and anarchist historiography dominates the view of the view that the Soviet regime suppressed the Hungarian labor movement. This is an interesting thesis, the only disadvantage of which is that it does not correspond to the facts. After all, the central working advice of Bolshoi Budapest originated on November 14, 1956, ten days after the start of the Soviet intervention. After the smoke from the shots was dissipated, it turned out that the entire right political spanner of the Hungarian policy is on the way to the Austrian border, and the working advice is the only power in the field. The fascist stage of the Hungarian revolution ended, the Mindscent Prime Minister could no longer be speech. Anarcho-syndicalist stage began under the sign of workers' strikes and useless bargaining with the Cadar Government. Nationalist sentiment of Hungarian workers played a bad joke with them. Cadar was ready to compromise in matters of self-government of enterprises and working advice, but the demand for the return of Nadia and the withdrawal of Soviet troops was obviously impossible. But these were the main conditions of the protesters.

As a result, the movement of workers' advice, after a few weeks of unsuccessful confrontation with the government of the Government of the Soviet bayonets suffered collapse. In its asset, Hungarian workers could record "Gulish-Socialism" Cadar. Restoration of capitalism was delayed for 30 years. The fascist revolution in Hungary continues to remain on the agenda inspired by the Myth of 1956.

The 1956 Hungarian uprising lasted for several days - from October 23 to November 9. This short period in Soviet textbooks was denoted as the Hungarian counter-revolutionary rebellion of 1956, which was successfully suppressed by Soviet troops. Exactly, he was defined in the Hungarian official chronicle. In modern interpretation, Hungarian events call the revolution.

The revolution began on October 23 with crowded rallies and processions in Budapest. In the center of the city, demonstrators overthrew from the pedestal and destroyed the huge monument to Stalin.
In total, according to the documents, about 50 thousand people took part in the uprising. There were many victims. After the repression of the uprising began mass arrests.

In history, these days entered as one of the most dramatic episodes of the Cold War period.

Hungary fought in World War II on the side of Nazi Germany until the very end of the war and got into the Soviet occupation zone after its end. In this regard, according to the Paris Peace Treaty of the Anti-Hitler Coalition Countries with Hungary, the USSR received the right to keep his armed forces on the territory of Hungary, however, it was obliged to withdraw their allies from Austria after the conclusion of the occupying troops. Allied troops were derived from Austria in 1955.
On May 14, 1955, the Socialist countries concluded the Warsaw Agreement on Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance, which extended the stay of the Soviet troops in Hungary.

On November 4, 1945, universal elections were held in Hungary. On them 57% of the votes received an independent party of small owners and only 17% - the Communists. In 1947, the Communist HPT (the Hungarian Party of Workers) by Terror, Blackmail and Machinations in the elections was the only legal political force. The occupation Soviet troops became the force on which the Hungarian communists were relied in their fight against opponents. So, on February 25, 1947, the Soviet command was arrested by the popular deputy of the Belo Kovacha parliament, after which he was taken out in the USSR and convicted of espionage.

The leader of HPT and the Chairman of the Mathiash Rakoshi government, called the "best student of Stalin," established a personal dictatorship, engaged in copying the Stalinist management model in the USSR: conducted violent industrialization and collectivization, suppressed any dissent, fought with the Catholic Church. State security (AVH) numbered 28 thousand people in the state. They helped 40 thousand informants. Million inhabitants of Hungary Avh started a dossier - more than 10% of the total population, including old men and children. Of these, 650 thousand were persecuted. About 400 thousand Hungarians received various prison sentences or camps, working out them mainly in mines and quarries.

The Government of Mathiash Rakoshi copied in many respects Politics I. V. Stalin, which caused rejection and indignation of the indigenous population.

Head of the destroyed Stalin statue. Budapest, Square Louise Blahi

The internal political struggle in Hungary continued to exacerbate. Rakoshi did not have anything else, how to promise investigating the processes of the Ryak and other representatives of the Communist Party. At all levels of power, even in state security bodies, the most unworthy of the people of the institution in Hungary, demanded resignation from Rakoshi. It was almost openly called the "killer". In mid-July 1956 in Budapest to achieve Rakoshi's resignation, Mikoyan flew away. Rakoshi was forced to obey and go to the USSR, where he eventually graduated from his days, damned and forgotten with his people and despised by Soviet leaders. Rakoshi's departure did not cause valid changes in the government's policies or in its composition.

In Hungary, there were arrests of former state security managers responsible for processes and executions. The reburial of October 6, 1956, the victims of the regime - Lasslo Ryak and others - resulted in powerful manifestation, in which 300 thousand inhabitants of the Hungarian capital participated.

The essential question was the stay of Soviet troops in the territory of Eastern European countries, that is, the actual occupation of them.The new Soviet government preferred to avoid bloodshed, but was ready for him, if it were about the disappearance of satellites from the USSR, even in the form of a neutrality announcement and non-participatory in blocks.

The inscription on the wall: "Russian - home!"

On October 22, demonstrations began in Budapest demanding the education of the new leadership led by Imre Napa. On October 23, Naga became the prime minister and appealed to fold the weapon. However, the Soviet tanks stood in Budapest and this caused the initiation of the people.

There was a grand demonstration, whose participants were students, senior schoolchildren, young workers. The demonstrators headed for the statue of the hero of the revolution of 1848, General Bella. The building of the Parliament gathered to 200 thousand. Demonstrators minted Stalin's statue. Armed units have been formed, who called themselves "fighters for freedom." They counted up to 20 thousand people. Among them were the former political prisoners, liberated by the people of prisons. "Fighters for freedom" took different areas of the capital, established the main command headed by Palom Maleter and renamed themselves to the National Guard.

At the enterprises of the Hungarian capital, cells of new power were formed - working advice. They exhibited their social and political demands and among these requirements was one that caused the rage of the Soviet leadership: to bring Soviet troops from Budapest, to remove them from the Hungarian territory.

The second circumstance that frightened the Soviet government was the restoration of the Social Democratic Party in Hungary, and then the formation of a multi-party government.

Although Naga and was made by the prime minister, but the new, Stalinist leadership led by the her was trying to isolate it and thus worsened the situation.

On October 25, an armed clash with Soviet troops occurred at the parliament building. The rising people demanded the care of the Soviet troops and the formation of a new government of national unity, in which various parties would be presented.

October 26, after the appointment of Cadar, the first secretary of the Central Committee and Resigns, the her, Mikoyan and Suslov returned to Moscow. At the airfield they followed in the tank.

October 28, when the battles in Budapest continued, the Hungarian government issued an order for the cease-fire and the return of armed detachments in their quarters in anticipation of instructions. Imre Naga in circulation on Radio announced that the Hungarian government came to an agreement with the Soviet on the immediate conclusion of the Soviet troops from Budapest and the inclusion of armed groups of Hungarian workers and young people in the regular Hungarian army. It was regarded as the cessation of Soviet occupation. Workers quit work up to the cessation of fighting in Budapest and the withdrawal of Soviet troops. The delegation of the Working Board of the Industrial District Miklos presented IMRA Naughty requirements for the conclusion of Soviet troops from Hungary until the end of the year.

Soviet troops were derived from Budapest, but focused in the district of Budapest airfield.

17 combat divisions were thrown for "guidance". Among them: Mechanized - 8, tank - 1, rifle - 2, anti-aircraft artillery - 2, aircraft - 2, airborne - 2. Another three airborne divisions were presented in full combat readiness and focused from the Soviet-Hungarian border - waited for the order.

On November 1, a mass invasion of Soviet troops in Hungary began. The protest Imre Nadia Soviet Ambassador Andropov replied that the Soviet divisions, which joined Hungary, arrived only to replace the troops there.

3000 Soviet tanks crossed the border from the Transcarpathian Ukraine and Romania. The Soviet ambassador re-caused to Nadia was warned that Hungary in protest against the violation of the Warsaw Treaty (the entry of the troops required the consent of the relevant government) will be out of the Covenant. The Hungarian government declared the same day about the exit from the Warsaw Covenant, the announcement of neutrality and contacting the United Nations in protest against the Soviet invasion.

What happened on the streets of Budapest? Soviet troops faced the fierce resistance of the divisions of the Hungarian army, as well as the civilian population.

Budapest Streets witnessed a terrible drama, during which ordinary people attacked tanks using bottles with an incendiary mixture. Key points, including the building of the Ministry of Defense and Parliament, were taken within a few hours. Hungarian Radio was silent, without graduating from a call to international assistance, but dramatic information about street battles came from the Hungarian reporter, who alternately turned to the teletymp, then to the rifle from which he shot from the window of his office.

Soviet tank is-3 with torn tower

The Presidium of the Central Committee of the CPSU began to prepare a new Hungarian government. The first secretary of the Hungarian Communist Party Janos Cadar agreed to the role of the premiere of the future government.On November 3, the new government was formed, but about the fact that it was formed in the territory of the USSR became known only two years later. Officially, the new government was announced at dawn on November 4, when Soviet troops broke into the Hungarian capital, where the coalition government headed by IMRE was formed on the eve; The Government also entered the non-partisan general Pal Maleter.

By the outcome of the day on November 3, the Hungarian military delegation led by Minister of Defense Palom Maleter was to continue negotiations on the withdrawal of Soviet troops at headquarters, where he was arrested by the Chairman of the KGB General Serov. Only when Naga could not connect with his military delegation, he realized that the Soviet leadership deceived him.

On November 4, at 5 o'clock in the morning, the Soviet artillery hit the fire on the Hungarian capital, after half an hour, Nazy notified the Hungarian people about it. Three days, Soviet tanks threw the Hungarian capital; Armed resistance in the province continued until November 14. Approximately 25 thousand Hungarians and 7 thousand Russians were killed.

Imre Nague and his staff found shelter in the Yugoslav embassy. After two-week negotiations, the cadar gave a written guarantee that Naga and his staff would not be prosecuted for their activities that they could leave the Yugoslav embassy and return to their families. However, the bus in which I was driving Naga was intercepted by the Soviet officers who arrested Nadia and took him to Romania. Later, Nague, who did not want to bring repentance, was tried by a closed court and shot. The same fate suffered the general fellow Maleter.
Thus, the suppression of the Hungarian uprising was not the first example of the brutal defeat of the political opposition in Eastern Europe - similar shares on a smaller scale were carried out in Poland with just a few days earlier. But it was the most monstrous example, due to the forever, the image of Khrushchev-Liberal, which seemed to be promised to leave in history.
These events may have been the first milestone on the way, led to a generation to destroy the communist system in Europe, as they caused the "crisis of consciousness" among the true supporters of Marxism-Leninism. Many veterans of the party in Western Europe and the United States lost illusions, because it was no longer possible to close the eyes to the determination of Soviet managers to preserve power in satellite countries, completely ignoring the aspirations of their peoples.

The Hungarian uprising against Stalinism and Soviet troops was the largest protest movement throughout the Eastern block. This is partly due to the revolutionary tradition of the country. In 1919, in a short time, the Soviet Republic was formed in a short time, and after World War II, a revolution with strikes and workers' tips broke out, which, unfortunately, stopped the Stalinists and the Russian army. This is also the nationalist party. Throughout its history, Magyara, as they themselves are called Hungarian, fought for their independence. In the middle of the XIX century, the troops of Tsarist Russia invaded the country to prevent them from getting accessed from the Kingdom of Habsburgs.

A more direct reason was the cruel abnet of Stalinism. Just like the USSR and the rest of Eastern Europe, the country was a one-party state, which dictatories managed a bureaucratic communist party. There were no free trade unions and a free press, and strikes in practice were banned. There was also a hated security police, which, with the assistance of the suponors spying people. It is also approved that the doors of all apartments that were built at the time were opened inwards so that the security police could knock them out.

In the years after 1945 and up to 1956, the standard of living fell: a partly because the country occupied by repairing (Hungary was on the side of Nazi Germany) was supposed to pay the Soviet Union, as well as feed Soviet occupying forces, and partly due to bad control and negligence Stalinists. Hungary, like the rest of Eastern Europe, Marxists call the "deformed workers' state." The second element of this definition relates to the fact that the property relations in it are proletarian, and the first describes them, so to speak, distorted state. In fact, these countries were at the stage of transition between capitalism and socialism, which is characterized by public state production, but, however, still follows the bourgeois norms of the section: salary are determined by the nature and degree of participation in work, there are also large differences in workers' salary, managers and politicians.

This is what political revolution happened in Hungary. The death of Stalin in 1953 and the Speech of Khrushchev at the Congress of the Russian Party in 1956 was directly impetus to her at the Congress of the Russian Party in 1956, during which mass murders, deportation and brutal repression of Stalin's time were exposed. In the eastern unit, this gave rise to hope for changes. The uprising began in Poland: the masses went to the demonstration, in 1956 to obtain independence from the USSR and return the repressed Gomulka (Gomulka). All this succeeded, and after the promise that the so-called socialism will be preserved, and Poland will remain among the countries of the Warsaw Agreement, Khrushchev was satisfied.

In Hungary, however, everything went on. Even a few years before, there were large-scale sabotages and intentional decline in production rates, as well as separate spontaneous strikes and demonstrations, which forced the Minister of Industry to declare: "The workers occupied a terrorist position in relation to the directorized industry."

The uprising began on October 23, 1956 with a demonstration as a sign of solidarity with Poland. After the demonstration, the protest action continued, including the eight meter monument to Stalin on parliamentary square was signed. The people then went to the radio station to demand resolution broadcast. There, they met the security police, which, however, disarmed. So started the riot.

Workers of armory factories distributed weapons to the masses, and quite a few Hungarian soldiers joined them. A general strike began, and hundreds of boards of workers were formed, first in the industrial centers of Budapest, and then in the rest of the country. The process covered factories, mines, hospitals, agriculture, universities, army and government bodies. Not used only suppliers of vital products and services in such areas as food, fuel, health, newspapers and rail transportation.

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Apostrophe 21.10.2017 The peasants have ensured that the food was supplied to the city, and truck drivers delivered ammunition to the people. In the workplace also formed the detachments of the police. We demanded the transition to free socialism with free elections, free press, real working control. They demanded that Russian troops leave the country, and so that Imre Nagy again became the prime minister.

October 24 in Budapest included tanks quartered in Hungary Russian units. They were met with automatic fire, grenades and Molotov cocktails. This demoralized many Russian tankers, and some of them even moved to the side of the people. Nadia again declared the prime minister and forced to retreat from the initial plan to reform the Communist Party. Employed with the flow of events, instead, he decides to end the one-party board, to bring Hungary from among the countries of the Warsaw contract and make it neutral.

It caused panic in Moscow, which was afraid that the uprising would spread. Therefore, Khrushchev decided to use Troops from Siberia (with the active support of the Chinese leader Mao Zedun, whom the riot scared too), who did not speak Russian and whom was deceived, saying that they were sent to Berlin to suppress the fascist uprising. This attack began on November 3 and was again met by fierce resistance, especially in workers and industrial areas, as well as in the areas of mines. But after a week of fierce fighting, the uprising was suppressed. According to estimates, 25 thousand Hungarians and 7 thousand Russians lost their lives. Imre Nadia was dismissed (and later executed) and replaced with a merciless sensualist Janos Kadar.

However, the general strike continued, as well as attempts to organize workers' tips. This meant that part of the production remained in the hands of the workers. To fix it, mass arrests were held by members of the Councils, and the basting threatened the death penalty, which indicates the inhuman cruelty of Stalinism.

The United States and NATO were inactive, partly because they were busy with the so-called Suez crisis, during which the United Kingdom and France attacked Egypt when Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal. The United States, with the support of the USSR, pressed on the UK and France so that they retreated, from fear that their attack provokes a revolution in Egypt. In the end, the attack ceased. In addition, the United States believed that he was trying to support Hungary - meaningless in connection with the military superiority of the USSR. In addition, after World War II, Europe was divided into spheres of interest. Therefore, the United States had the fact that they promised economic support to countries that would be able to free themselves from Moscow.

However, the uprising was not in vain. Hungary was desalted faster than everyone in the Eastern bloc, and freedom was larger there than in other countries. Cadar mode was forced to act delicately from fear before the new uprising. The standard of living has increased, and also partially introduced a free market for small businesses and sales of consumer goods. In 1989, the protest movement in Hungary was developing faster, and it was in this country that the first border on the west was opened.

"In the course of several days, Euphoria even seemed that the revolutionaries somehow would be won," says Shebhestyen. But at dawn on November 4, 1956, Soviet tanks were rich in Budapest. Blood river flowed through the streets. Hundreds of thousands of Hungarians fled from the country, of which 8 thousand went to Sweden. The 1956 Hungarian revolution is a story about "inspiring respect for courage during hopeless struggle."

But, as many Hungarians stated, the struggle was not in vain. If it was possible to smit a revolutionary guide, the outcome could be different. The fact that the Soviet troops, which were located in the country, had to get out of the ravoisi, says for himself. And the second invading the army would also manage to demoralize if the soldiers met more efficient weapons and propaganda in their own language. And since these troops were unsuitable, Khrushchev had to remove his hands. The statements that the rebels for the most part were not configured by antsocialistitically, are valid.

The Hungarian uprising remains an outstanding example of will to the struggle and practically increhensible courage, and also refers to a number of highest points in the history of revolutions and reforms. Unfortunately, the protest movement in 1989 led not to the political revolution, but to the bourgeois counterrevolution. This was due to the fact that capitalism increased for a long time for the 80s and 90s, as well as with demoralization caused by Stalinism, which spent socialism in dirt. Today, Hungary, like the rest of Eastern European states, is subject to economic crises and political instability. This will lead to social clasions, during which the traditions of 1956 will reimburse. But this time the social, and political revolution is required, although the social revolution will be easier to hold here than in Western Europe, since capitalism in Hungary is weaker, and the state is still strong. She would spread with a fire speed for all Eastern Europe and to Russia, and then to the rest of Europe and around the world.

The Hungarian uprising remains an outstanding example of courage and will to combat young people and the working class.

Insurance materials contain estimates of exclusively foreign media and do not reflect the position of the EOSMI's editorial office.

In the fall of 1956, events occurred, which, after the fall of the communist regime, were called as a Hungarian uprising, and in Soviet sources were called a counter-revolutionary insurgency. But, no matter how they were characterized by certain ideologues, it was an attempt by the Hungarian people armed way to overthrow the prosecutor's regime in the country. She entered a number of the most important events of the Cold War, which showed that the USSR is ready to apply military power to preserve its control over the countries of the Warsaw Treaty.

Establishing a communist regime

In order to understand the reasons for the uprising that happened in 1956 should be part of the country's domestic political and economic situation in 1956. First of all, it should be noted that during World War II, Hungary fought on the side of the fascists, therefore, in accordance with the articles of the Parisian peace treaty, signed by the countries of the Anti-Hitler Coalition, the USSR had the right to keep his troops on its territory until the conclusion of the Allied Occupation Forces from Austria.

Immediately at the end of the war, the general elections were held in Hungary, on which an independent party of small owners, with a significant advantage of votes, won the communist VPT - the Hungarian Party of Workers. As it became known subsequently, the ratio was 57% against 17%. However, relying on the support of the contingent of the Soviet Armed Forces located in the country, already in 1947, HPT by Machinations, threats and blackmail seized the power, assigning the right to be the only legal political party.

Studin's student

The Hungarian Communists tried to imitate their Soviet One-party, no wonder their Matyash Rakoshi leader received the nickname of the best student Stalin. It was awarded this "honor" due to the fact that by setting a personal dictatorship in the country, he tried to copy the Stalinist state management model in everything. In the situation of the blatant arbitrariness, the violent way was carried out in the field of ideology, any manifestations of dissent are mercilessly suppressed. The country has also turned in the fight against the Catholic Church.

During the reign of Rakoshi, a powerful state security apparatus was created - AVH, which had 28 thousand employees in its ranks who helped 40 thousand informants. All sides of life were under the control of this service. As it became known in the post-communist period, the dossier was headed by a million inhabitants of the country, of which 655 thousand were persecuted, and 450 thousand. Substituted various terms of conclusion. They were used as free labor in mines and on mines.

In the field of economy, as well as in the emergence of an extremely difficult situation. It was caused by the fact that Hungary had to pay the USSR, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia as a military alliance of Germany, for the payment of which almost a quarter of national income went. Of course, it extremely negatively affected the life level of ordinary citizens.

Short political thaw

Certain changes in the life of the country came in 1953, when, in view of the obvious failure of industrialization and the weakening of ideological pressure from the USSR, caused by the death of Stalin, the hated people of Mathiash Rakoshi was shifted from the post of head of government. His place was taken by another communist - Imre Naga, a supporter of immediate and radical reforms in all areas of life.

As a result of the measures taken by them, political persecution was discontinued and their former victims were amnestied. A special decree Naga put an end to the intercourse of citizens and their forced eviction from cities on social characteristic. The construction of a number of unprofitable large industrial facilities was also discontinued, and funds allowed for them were sent to the development of food and light industry. Over this, government bodies have weakened pressure on agriculture, reduced tariffs for the population and reduced food prices.

Renewal of the Stalin Course and the beginning of the excitement

However, despite the fact that such measures have made a new head of the government very popular in the people, they were the reason to exacerbate the in-party struggle in HPT. Offended from the head of the government head, but who retained the leading position in the Matmash Rakoshi batch by backstage intrigues and with the support of the Soviet Communists managed to overcome his political opponent. As a result, the most ordinary inhabitants of the country, the most simple inhabitants of the country have retained their hopes and was excluded from the party.

The consequence of this was the renewal of the Stalinist Line of the State Guide and the continuation of this by the Hungarian Communists and continued all this caused extreme dissatisfaction with the wide layers of the public. The people began to openly demand the return to power of Nadia, the general elections built on an alternative basis and, which is extremely important, with the conclusion from the country of Soviet troops. This last requirement was particularly relevant, since the signing in May 1955, the Warsaw Treaty gave the basis of the USSR to preserve its contingent of troops in Hungary.

The Hungarian uprising was the result of the exacerbation of the political situation in the country in 1956. An important role was played by the events of the same year in Poland, where there were open anti-communist performances. Their result was the strengthening of critical moods among studentism and writing intelligentsia. In mid-October, a significant part of the youth declared the exit from the "Democratic Union of Youth", which was an analogue of the Soviet Komsomol, and the student union, which was previously overclocked by the Communists.

As it often happened in the past, the impetus to the beginning of the uprising was given students. Already on October 22, they have been formulated and charged by the government's claims that included the appointment of I. Nadia to the post of Prime Minister, the organization of democratic elections, the conclusion of the Soviet troops from the country and demolition of monuments to Stalin. Transparencies with such slogans were preparing to carry the participants scheduled the next day of the nationwide demonstration.

October 23, 1956

This procession that began in Budapest is exactly fifteen hours, attracted more than two hundred thousand participants. Hungary History hardly remembers other, such a unanimous manifestation of political will. By this time, the Ambassador of the Soviet Union, the future head of the KGB, Yuri Andropov urgently contacted Moscow and reported in detail about everything that happened in the country. He finished his message to the recommendation to provide the Hungarian Communists comprehensively, including military, assistance.

By the evening of the same day, the first secretary of Verd Erno Gerre was appointed on the radio with the condemnation of demonstrators and threats to their address. In response to this, the crowd of manifestations rushed to the assault on the building, where the broadcasting studio was located. The armed clashes between them and divisions of the state security forces occurred, as a result of which the first killed and wounded appeared.

Regarding the source of the production of weapons, the statement was put forward in the Soviet media that it was delivered in advance to Hungary Western special services. However, the testimony of the participants themselves shows that it was obtained or simply taken from reinforcements sent to the aid of radio defenders. It was also mined in warehouses of civil defense and in captured police stations.

Soon the uprising embraced all Budapest. Army units and units of state security did not have serious resistance, firstly, because of their small number - there were only two and a half thousand people, and secondly, due to the fact that many of them openly sympathized with the rebels.

In addition, he received an order not to open fire on civilians, and this deprived military opportunities to take serious actions. As a result, in the evening of October 23, many key objects were in the hands of the people: warehouses with weapons, newspaper typography and central city station. Conscious of the threat of the current situation, on the night of October 24, the Communists, wanting to win the time, again appointed Imre Nadia Prime Minister, and they themselves turned to the USSR government asking for the introduction of troops to Hungary in order to suppress the Hungarian uprising.

The result of the appeal was to enter the territory of the country of 6,500 military personnel, 295 tanks and a significant number of other military equipment. In response to this, an emergency formed by the Hungarian National Committee appealed to the President of the United States asking for the rebel military assistance.

First blood

On the morning of October 26, during a rally on the square at the parliament building, the fire was opened from the roof of the house, as a result of which the Soviet officer was killed and the tank was set fire. It provoked a retaliatory fire, worth the life of hundreds of manifestations. The news of what happened quickly flew around the country and was the cause of mass treatment of residents with state security officers and simply military.

Despite the fact that, wanting to normalize the situation in the country, the government announced an amnesty to all the meter participants who voluntarily prevailing weapons, the clashes continued all the following days. Did not affect the established furnishings and replacing the first secretary of VPT Erno Hero by Jan Kadaroam. In many areas, the leadership of party and government agencies simply disassembled, and in their place spontaneously formed local governments.

As evidenced by the participants of the events, after the ill-fated incident on the square in front of Parliament, the Soviet troops did not take active actions against the manifestations. After the statement of the head of the government Imre Nadia on the condemnation of the former "Stalinist" methods of management, the dissolution of the state security forces and the beginning of the negotiations on the conclusion of Soviet troops from the country, many people had the impression that the Hungarian uprising has reached the desired results. The fights in the city stopped, for the first time in the last days, silence reigned. The result of the negotiations of Nadia with the Soviet leadership was the conclusion of the troops started on October 30.

These days, many districts of the country found themselves in the setting of a complete anarchy. The former power structures were destroyed, and new ones were not created. The government, meeting in Budapest, practically did not affect what happened on the streets of the city, and there was a sharp surge of crime, since from prisons, together with political prisoners, they released more than ten thousand criminals.

In addition, the situation was aggravated by the fact that the 1956 Hungarian uprising was very radically radically radically. The consequence of this was massive violence over military personnel, former state security officers, and even ordinary communists. In one of the building of the Central Committee, VPT were executed over twenty party leaders. In those days, photographs of their worried bodies had the pages of many world publications. The Hungarian revolution began to take the features of the "meaningless and merciless" rebellion.

Re-entering the armed forces

The subsequent suppression of the uprising by the Soviet troops was made primarily as a result of the position occupied by the US government. Promising the Cabinet I. Nadia Military and Economic Support, the Americans at the critical moment refused their obligations, providing Moscow to intervene in their established situation. The 1956 Hungarian uprising was practically doomed to defeat, when October 31 at a meeting of the Central Committee of the CPSU N. S. Khrushchev spoke for the adoption of the most radical measures to establish the communist board in the country.

Based on his orders, Marshal G. K. Zhukov was headed by the development of an armed invasion plan in Hungary, called the "whirlwind". He involved in hostilities of fifteen tank, motorized and rifle divisions, with the involvement of air force and landing units. For the implementation of this operation, almost all leaders of the countries participating in the Warsaw Treaty were expressed.

The "Whirlwind" operation began with the fact that on November 3, the recently appointed Minister of Defense of Hungary, General Major, was arrested on November 3 of the Soviet KGB. This happened during the negotiations held in the city of Tököl, not far from Budapest. Enter the main contingent of the armed forces, which was commanded by G. K. Zhukov, was produced in the morning of the next day. The official reason for this was the request of the government led in a short time troops seized all the basic objects of Budapest. Imre Nague, saving their lives, left the government building and hid in the Embassy of Yugoslavia. Later, his deception was smeared from there, they will give a court and together with Palom Maleter will publicly hang as traitors of the Motherland.

Active suppression of uprising

The main events unfolded on November 4th. In the center of the capital, Hungarian rebels provided desperate resistance to Soviet troops. For its suppression, flamers, as well as incendiary and smoke shells were applied. Only the concerns of the negative reaction of the international public for a large number of victims among civilians held a command from the bombing of the city already raised into the air by airplanes.

In the coming days, all the impedisions had been depressed, after which the 1956 Hungarian uprising took the form of an underground combat with the communist regime. To one degree or another, she did not catch the following decades. As soon as the prosecutor's regime was finally established in the country, mass arrests of the participants of the recent uprising began. Hungary history again began to develop in the Stalinist scenario.

According to researchers estimates, at that time about 360 mortal sentences were made, 25 thousand citizens of the country were prosecuted, and 14 thousand of them were serving various deadlines. For many years, behind the Iron Curtain, the extinguishable countries of Eastern Europe from the rest of the world, was Hungary. The USSR is the main stronghold of the communist ideology - vigorously followed all the countries he underpong control.

Content:

Rise in Hungary

Budapest, 1956

What managed to avoid in Poland occurred in Hungary, where the passions were much larger. In Hungary, the internal struggle between the Communists was sharper. than anywhere, and the Soviet Union turned out to be drawn into it more than in Poland or in other countries. Of all the leaders who in 1956 still remained in power in Eastern Europe, Rakoshi was more involved in the export of Stalinism. Returning to Budapest from Moscow after the 20th CPSU Congress, Rakoshi told his friends: "In a few months, Khrushchev will be declared a traitor and everything will go back to normal."

Under these conditions, the Soviet leadership decided to reiterate Imre Nadia to power. A new Ambassador of the USSR (Future Member of the Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee and the Chairman of the State Security Committee) was sent to Budapest.

The hate of the people was facing those who were known for their tormenting: state security officers. They personified all the most disgusting in Rakoshi mode; They were caught and killed. Events in Hungary took the character of the genuine People's Revolution and this is this circumstance and scared of Soviet leaders. The USSR should have taken into account at that moment that the anti-Soviet and anti-socialist uprising occurs. It was obvious that this is far-reaching political intent, and not just the desire to destroy the existing regime.

In the orbit of events, not only the intelligentsia was drawn up, but also industrial workers. Participation in the movement of a significant part of youth imposed a certain imprint on his character. The political leadership turned out to be in the tail of the movement, and did not lead him, as it happened in Poland.

The essential question was the stay of Soviet troops in the territory of Eastern European countries, that is, the actual occupation of them.

The new Soviet government preferred to avoid bloodshed, but was ready for him, if it were about the disappearance of satellites from the USSR, even in the form of a neutrality announcement and non-participatory in blocks.

The second circumstance that frightened the Soviet government was the restoration of the Social Democratic Party in Hungary, and then the formation of a multi-party government.

Although Naga and was made by the prime minister, but the new, Stalinist leadership led by the her was trying to isolate it and thus worsened the situation.

October 24 in Budapest arrived Mikoyan and Suslov. They recommended immediately replacing the hero at the post of first secretary by Janocha Cadar. Meanwhile, on October 25, an armed clash with Soviet troops occurred at the parliament building. The rising people demanded the care of the Soviet troops and the formation of a new government of national unity, in which various parties would be presented.

October 26, after the appointment of Cadar, the first secretary of the Central Committee and Resigns, the her, Mikoyan and Suslov returned to Moscow. At the airfield they followed in the tank.

The report of Mikoyan and Suslov about the situation in Hungary, made by them immediately after returning from Budapest on October 26, the Presidium of the CPSU Central Committee, reflected, can be seen from the advance article of the True newspaper of October 28, allegedly willing to agree with the democratization program, provided that this program Preserves the domination of the Communist Party and keeps Hungary in the Warsaw Covenial system. The article was only a disguise. The same goal was the order of the Soviet troops to leave Budapest. The Soviet government sought to win time to prepare the massacre that should have followed not only on behalf of the other participants in the Covenant, but also Yugoslavia, China.

Thus, the responsibility would be distributed between all.

Soviet troops were derived from Budapest, but focused in the district of Budapest airfield.

October 30, when Mikoyan and Suslov were in Budapest, the Presidium of the Central Committee of the CPSU adopted, as Khrushchev testifies, the unanimous resolution on the armed suppression of the Hungarian Revolution, which states that it would be unforgivable for the USSR to remain neutral and "not to assist the working class of Hungary in his struggle against counterrevolution. "

At the request of the Presidium of the Central Committee of the CPSU to Moscow, the Chinese delegation headed by Liu Shaoki arrived in Moscow. Liu Schaoqi said that Soviet troops should leave Hungary and give the working class "Hungary M" himself to suppress counterrevolution because it completely contradicted the decision on intervention, Khrushchev, said on October 31 the Presidium on the answer of the Chinese, insisted on the immediate use of troops. Marshal Konev, caused to the meeting of the Presidium, said that his troops would need 3 days to suppress "counter-revolution" (in fact - the revolution, and received an order to bring troops into combat readiness. The order was given behind Liu Schoqi, which in the same The day was returned to Beijing in full confidence that the Soviet intervention will not be. It was decided to report Liua Shaoki on the intervention at the time of the wires on the Vnukovo airfield. To make a greater impression on Liu Schoqi, the Presidium of the Central Committee of the CPSU appeared in Vnukovo in full, the conversations began again "The welfare of the Hungarian people." In the end, Liu Shaoka surrendered so that China's support was provided.

Then Khrushchev, Malenkov and Molotov - the authorized presidium of the Central Committee - went consistently in Warsaw and Bucharest, where there was quite easily consent to the intervention. The last stage of their trip was Yugoslavia. They arrived to Tito, waiting for serious objections from him. From his part there were no objections; According to Khrushchev, "We were pleasantly surprised ... Tito said that we are absolutely right, and we must move our soldiers into battle as soon as possible. We were ready for resistance, but instead received its own comprehensive support. I would even say that Tito went even further and convinced us to solve this problem as soon as possible, "the Khrushchev concludes his story.

So the fate of the Hungarian revolution was solved.

On November 1, a mass invasion of Soviet troops in Hungary began. The Soviet Ambassador of Andropov answered the protest, the Soviet divisions, which joined Hungary, arrived only to replace the troops there.

But all this has already bothered the Soviet government. The Anglo-Franco Israeli invasion (October 23 - December 22) in Egypt distracted the attention of the world community from events in Hungary. The US government condemned the actions of England, France and Israel. Thus, the split in the western allies was obvious. There were no signs that Western powers will come to the aid of Hungary. Thus, the conflict due to the Suez Canal in 1956 and the ensuing war of England, France and Israel against Egypt distracted Western powers from events in Hungary. The international situation has been extremely favorable for the intervention of the Soviet Union.

What happened on the streets of Budapest? Soviet troops faced the fierce resistance of the divisions of the Hungarian army, as well as the civilian population. Budapest Streets witnessed a terrible drama, during which ordinary people attacked tanks using bottles with an incendiary mixture. Key points, including the building of the Ministry of Defense and Parliament, were taken within a few hours. Hungarian Radio was silent, without graduating from a call to international assistance, but dramatic information about street battles came from the Hungarian reporter, who alternately turned to the teletymp, then to the rifle from which he shot from the window of his office.

The Presidium of the Central Committee of the CPSU began to prepare a new Hungarian government; The first secretary of the Hungarian Communist Party Janos Cadar agreed to the role of the premiere of the future government.

On November 3, the new government was formed, but about the fact that it was formed in the territory of the USSR became known only two years later. An officially new government was announced at dawn on November 4, when Soviet troops broke into the Hungarian capital., Where the coalition government headed by immane was formed the day before; The Government also entered the non-partisan general Pal Maleter.

After the suppression of the revolution revolution, the Soviet military administration, together with the state security bodies, I learned the massacre over Hungarian citizens: mass arrests and deportation began to the Soviet Union.

Imre Nague and his staff found shelter in the Yugoslav embassy. After two-week negotiations, the cadar gave a written guarantee that Naga and his staff would not be prosecuted for their activities that they could leave the Yugoslav embassy and return to their families. However, the bus in which I was driving Naga was intercepted by the Soviet officers who arrested Nadia and took him to Romania. Later, Nague, who did not want to bring repentance, was tried by a closed court and shot. The message was published on June 16, 1958. The same fate suffered the general fellow Maleter. Thus, the suppression of the Hungarian uprising was not the first example of the brutal defeat of the political opposition in Eastern Europe - similar shares on a smaller scale were carried out in Poland with just a few days earlier. But it was the most monstrous example, due to the forever, the image of Khrushchev-Liberal, which seemed to be promised to leave in history. These events may have been the first milestone on the way, led to a generation to destroy the communist system in Europe, as they caused the "crisis of consciousness" among the true supporters of Marxism-Leninism. Many veterans of the party in Western Europe and the United States lost illusions, because it was no longer possible to close the eyes to the determination of Soviet managers to preserve power in satellite countries, completely ignoring the aspirations of their peoples.